Gender diversity in police organizations has increased over time, but policing remains a male-dominated occupation (Dantzker & Kubin, 1998). Early police administrators cautioned against full female integration into all aspects of policing, in their influential text on police administration, argued that police administrators openly resisted equal employment and questioned whether women were capable and qualified to be effective officers (Wilson & McClaren, 1963; Walker, 1984). Between common sex-role stereotypes and the ideological emphasis of the law enforcement and crime fighting roles in policing, the prevailing wisdom suggested that females were not as rational, were more irritable, were less aggressive, were less reliable, weaker physically, possessed unstable emotions, and were generally less qualified than males (DeJong, 2004; Garcia, 2003). It is easy to speculate/perceive the discrimination attitudes towards the females in the policing occupation, given the statements above.

However, along with increasingly numbers of policewomen in the force, the desire from policewomen to challenge and eliminate the gender discriminations against them is raised to be an important social issue, and noticed by the high ranking officers in police force, world widely.

To give an answer to such a demand asked by the female officers, who are as minorities in police force, some active attempts had been made either in the force or externally to eliminate discrimination against policewomen since late 1980s (McCarty

& Garland, 2007).

Whereas, given the critical considerations of majority male officers and strong masculine culture influence in police force, gender discrimination needs further to be investigation to clarify whether or not women have been integrated into the policing profession and treated equally as their male peers?

Literature Review

There are a number of academic research articles in regard of the gender issues of

police force. The United States of America (USA) contributed the majorities of them. The multicultural social background would probably account for why the USA researchers studied this topic more often than other countries. For instance, the USA police departments not only have the gender issue in police force, but also accompanying with the complex racial problem. For this reason, the literature from the USA researchers would be the main source for this paper.

There are severe arguments among researchers towards the gender discrimination issue in police force in the USA (DeJong, 2004). Some say there is no gender discrimination issue existing any more since the women were allowed to be the police officers; while others insist that the gender discrimination is always out there in the police force.

With over eight years experience served in different police organizations worldwide. From the very start of my police career at S.W.A.T. (Special Weapons And Tactics) team of Shi Hezi City Police Department, China, or UN Peacekeeping force in Afghanistan, or exchanged to S.W.A.T. teams in LAPD (Los Angles Police Department), NYPD (New York Police Department), and Detroit Police Department in the USA. I, personally, believe there is gender discrimination against female officers in the police force.

Although women remain an underrepresented group in police force according to Martin (1999), the number of female officers has risen steadily since the 1970s (Garcia, 2003). Balkin (1988) suggested the organizational culture that barred women from law enforcement has changed slightly over time, or at least that women have been successful in overcoming occupation entry barriers to policing, the profession entry level has been conquered. However, after four decades though progressively women entered the police force, they are still, to some extent, suffering gender discrimination in the police force. That would be the career development level bars that the policewomen will be needing to subjugate. Therefore, to gain the better understanding of gender discrimination against female officers in the police force, this paper is a literature review that investigates this issue from the following three perspectives; the traditional masculine police culture, the male officers’ resistance and female officers’ integration, and the police system design.

Police culture

Much of the existing literature study on police culture defends and explains the theories that drive resistance to female officers and mostly of which are from the researchers in United States of America (USA) (Brown & Sargent, 1995; Paoline, 2003; Waddington,1999). There is spread speculation on the nature and purpose of the police subculture. Some theorists posit the solitary, masculine police subculture is a dated vestige of the past, and modern police organizations have many different subcultures, each vying for resources (Wood et al., 2004). Despite the fact that women represent almost 46 percent of the USA workforce, there is no police organization in the USA has reported female employment ratio equal to that percent, suggesting that women do possess a unique subculture, it would be subordinate in strength and power to the male subculture (National Center for Women and Policing, 2001).

Due to the professional distinctiveness, the police work formed its exclusive organizational culture. Inciardi (1990) defined that kind of police culture, as the police officers, as well as the police organizations, find their own way to deal with the risks and negative sides of the police job to form a blue wall of silence (p.227), or closed police society. This closed police society literally represents the mainstream of police culture, though it is slightly different given the variations on the countries and the social cultures. A number of specific police subcultures consist of this police cultural framework, the masculine police subculture is one of them (Inciardi, 1990).

Below are the figures showing the female officers percentage in several large police

departments in 1971 and 2000,respectively, in USA (Sklansky, 2006). Comparing to the statistics that women actually occupy the 46 percent of the USA workforce.

Figure 1

There is only one chart could be located which stated the New South Wales (NSW) police service gender ratio, contributed by Christine Nixon, the Chief Inspector of New South Wales Police Service (Nixon, n.d.).

Figure 2

Comparing to the two charts, in 1971 in the major cities of USA, and in 1972 in NSW, Australia, the female officers only occupied very small percentage in the police force in both countries. However, the USA female officers ratio is slightly higher than the NSW, Australia. Another difference is that, the USA figure represented all female

officers in the police, while the NSW, Australia chart only accounted for the sworn female officers.

This data comparing result is not significant given the variables are unknown and unclear in both courtiers.

There is another table shows the gender ratio of Australia police force in 1991, including Australia Federal Police and all states and territory police force (Nixon, n.d.).

Figure 3

However, the Figure 3 dated 1991, which is no statistical significance to analyze the Figure 1 and Figure 3, given the considerations of time, location, sampling method, and population etc. difference.

Though, Australia officials only have the data which are more than two decades ago, there is no newer data analysis results in regard of the gender in police forces of Australia.

The masculine police subculture has also been described as a manifestation of the nature of police work (i.e. stress, work shift, danger, violence involved), as well as a social structure, which exists purposely, and specifically to oppress female officers (Brown & Sargent, 1995; Franklin, 2005), representative of a patriarchal society. There is consensus that the sovereign male police culture is a distinctive occupational subculture that celebrates masculine values, which engender some particular views of women, the nature of policing, and the roles for which men and women officers are believed to be most suitable (Dick & Jankowicz, 2001). The inclusion of women into the police culture has the potential to change these norms, values, and customs existing in the male police subculture and hence has been met with great resistance, mostly is from their male peers.

Male officer resistance and female officers’ integration

As discussed in the previous passage, the masculine police subculture naturally

generates the influence to resist the females in the police work. Though as mentioned that, the entry level for females to the police profession has been overcome, the career development level will need to be subjugated.

Male police officers’ resistance to female officers has been amply documented, Prokos and Padavic (2002) drew us an image that could possibly be the best representative of the male officers resist their female colleagues. The title boldly shouts what the most male officers think about their female peers. Another famous researcher, specializing in of gender issues in UK police force, Brown has documented the shocking discriminatory treatment of female officers in England and Wales (1998). However, what Prokos and Padavic, and Brown discovered is just a tip of iceberg, and the problem is much deeper than their research reveals.

Herrington (2002, p.7) argues that “most women officers have experienced both sex discrimination and sexual harassment”. . . and frequently these behaviors were “blatant, malicious, widespread, organized, and involved supervisors; occasionally it was life-threatening”. Hunt (1990) examined the underlying logic of police sexism among police when she researched the hesitation of male police officers to accept women into the rank-and-file and concluded, “sexism. . . is a deep structure which is articulated in every aspect of the police world” (p. 26). Moreover, she also found women were isolated outside of the informal police structure and continue to face sexual harassment, sexism, and discrimination.

Paoline (2003) describes the masculine police subculture as the major ‘informal culture’ existing in the force. To some extent, the subculture is built up on the basis of bullying, teasing and discriminating against female officers. The subculture naturally would exclude female officers who try to blend into that subculture. The unfairness suffered by the female police officers in the police force, inevitably, leads the clues to the source that creates all, the police organization system design.

Police System Design

Since the Metropolitan Police Act 1829 carried out in London, UK, almost two hundred years ago, which simply symbolized modern police system had been officially established.

There is limited research done in this area. Martin argues that the springhead of gender discrimination against female officers in the police force was the police system design (1994).

However, for the past two centuries, even in London, where the modern police system was invented, there was only one update, the Police Act of 1964, exactly one hundred and thirty-five years after the initialization of the modern police system, and eighty years after the females were allowed to wear the police uniform. Auten (1981) severely criticizes the police profession, and argues that it is probably the most obstinate, and self-closed profession since it formed.

Early police administrators have strongly fought against females stepping into police force (Wilson & McClaren, 1963; Walker, 1984). The administrators, and their successors, prefer to keep the police system operating as when it was formed two hundred years ago. Maybe Prokos and Padavic (2002) found something that could really represent the true thoughts of the males officers, even the whole police system; ‘There oughtta be a law against those bitches’ . This conclusion was drawn when Prokos and Padavic interviewed some new recruits police officers in a police academy in USA. The police academy should the starting point for all police officers regardless the gender and race etc. And it is also the fundamental section of police system, but it is pathetic if such a statement could be drawn in the academy.

Sklansky provides some solid statistical results to show why the police system excluded the females in the USA (2006). The chart below shows gender composition by rank in 2011 in USA police departments.

Figure 4

Moreover , Christine Nixon presents the gender composition at NSW Police Department, Australia in 1991 (Nixon, n.d.).

Figure 5

As stated before, the data analysis results for the two charts mentioned above are not appropriate to compare to, given the variables’ variation. However, at the very least, from the Figure 5, women have zero percentage occupation among top four

rank positions in NSW Police Department in 1991, and women only accounts for vey small percentage among top eight rank positions.

With my own experience to be police officers world wide in different police organizations, I have found that the main obstacles in police system for females include stereotyping, vested interest groups, and a lack of inclusive culture for women. Stereotyping forms the basis of the assumptions made about women as noted in the research of (Paoline, 2003) ‘Taking stock: toward a richer understanding of police culture’, in which the author states that influence of the social stereotype pushed too much pressure to the police system, and those pressure avoid the evolution of the modern police system. The problems of the vested groups are people, mostly high rank male officers, are not willing to face the reality of the gender issues in police force, as they do not have the will and driving factors to change the police system. Because they have got their own interests in this profession, it is not necessary for them to review the gender issue (Wood et al., 2004). The missing part for police system is the lack of an inclusive police women culture. Comparing to the male police subculture, there ought to be a police women subculture to consist the police culture. However, it looks like that the women never successfully established their own police women subculture in the police system, and the police system chooses to avoid admitting this fact intentionally, for some reason (Hunt, 1990).

Conclusion

The gender discrimination against female officers in police force exists. It was

primarily caused by the masculine police subculture, which is also the mainstream of the police culture. Which naturally excludes the women in the police force. Then, this masculine subculture not only negatively influences the male police officers’ resistance attitudes towards their female peers, but also rejects the females to integrate further into the police force. In the meanwhile, the police system design, including the stereotyping, vested interest groups’ resistance and a lack of inclusive police women subculture adds fuel to the fire, from the regime level to push the gender discrimination against females severer,

The female police officers will need to have their own values to be voiced by the support of the police officials, which is the goal that inside of the police system the females need to achieve. The study of police women subculture would probably be the best way to achieve that goal, as this subculture is the spokesman for females

police officers, however, there is very limited research to investigate the police women subculture. The social stereotype towards police women need to be adjusted, to some extent. As the stereotyping pushed a great deal of unfairness treatment to female police officers, which need to be properly addressed in the following studies.

Methodology

Research Methodologies

Based on the review of the literature related to this topic, the gaps identified from past studies and to answer the research question proposed, this paper will use two important methodologies; case studies based on content analysis and critical textual analysis. The use of these two methodologies is necessary in order for the collected data to be brought together, following analysis to get a more valid and reliable answer to the research questions, and to fill in the gaps identified in the review of previous research (Burns Cunningham, 2014).

Data Collection Methods

It is important to establish the importance of using more than one data collection method. The case study will be based on triangulation of secondary sources, news reports, official statements, media releases using the methods outlined above.

Another importance in the use of multiple methods of data collection is to get the benefit emanating from various perspectives as well as insights in answering the research question. In the convergence of the multiple observations and data sources, there is an increase in the confidence of results and findings (Burns Cunningham, 2014). It is always important for me to conduct the research in a deeper manner and for more details to get more valid and reliable findings.

Case study

Case study is one of the methodologies that will be used to collect data for this paper. A case study is generally a descriptive, explanatory or exploratory analysis of an individual, group of persons or event. Gibbert, Ruigrok and Wicki (2009) define this research methodology as the analysis of individuals, events, periods, decisions, policies, projects, institutions, or any other system which is holistically and systematically studied using one or a number of data collection techniques. This study will use secondary sources from official and unofficial sources. Including news reports, web sources and the statement released by the public sectors, in terms of

the police department. This will be supplemented with critical textual analysis and content analysis of the data.

A case study, basically, refers to a more detailed or in-depth study of a specific event or situation, instead of a far-reaching statistical survey. This is research method is employed in narrowing down a complex problem into manageable and researchable topics. In this paper, I will use this method to dig deeper from the past studies and from existing secondary sources Using this method, Creswell (2010) suggests that data should be collected for a specified period of time. This means that I will engage with the case for a particular period of time collecting the data. Sexual harassment as one major forms of gender discrimination in the police force appeared probably the first day when females were allowed to work in the force, but this phenomenon was initially recorded and studied in the 1970s in the USA along with other movements during that period of time. There was a peak when in the 1980s and early 1990s, this

issue was raised as a critical topic among the police researchers, and the authorities started to confront the gender discrimination in police force.

In the late 1990s till now, though after the most of police authorities announced that there was ‘Zero tolerance’ of gender discrimination activities against female officers however descripted, there are quite a few news reports, at times, revealed the serious gender discrimination against females in the police force.

Therefore, the data for this paper would be sourced from the 1970s till now. But most of the peer reviewed articles data would be sourced from the UK and USA researchers during 1980s and early 1990s. The news reports and media release are quite easy to find on internet after 2000.

This is a significant method of research aimed at bringing about an understanding of a multifaceted problem and can strengthen what I already know from the review of past studies. The method entails a contextual analysis in a number of conditions or events as well as their relations. This is a qualitative research method, which examines real-life situations of the cases. It is also defined as an empirical inquiry that is aimed at investigating a modern phenomenon in its real life setting (Stewart, 2012).

The literature review is the point at which the research questions are identified. This is because this methodology part then is the next stage how this research could be conducted.

In performing this research using the case study methodology, it is critical for me to identify the single or multiple real-life cases that will be examined in more details and

the tools that will be used for collecting the data.

In the cases of this paper, the case studies will focus on the police force gender discrimination reports, which primarily will be collected from the newspapers and television, news sources from the internet and some official reports released by the police authorities. Given the facts that the USA and UK researchers lead an advanced position in police gender discrimination studies, the majority sources of the cases would possibly. Existing research is based in the UK and the USA.

Critical Textual Analysis

Critical textual analysis is used in investigating language or text (written and spoken) or sign systems including visual and behavioral, not simply verbal ones. Its concern is on the details of expression, as well as the patterns, and therefore meaning. However, it is important to note that different discourses tend to produce different meanings or truth (Shi-Xu, 2012). Therefore, it is necessary to collect and analyze the different meanings from the text in question. Instead of just speaking to the individuals affected by the problem in question, it is more important to perform analysis of texts related to the problem. This is because from the verbal and written texts, it is easier for the researcher to get more objective and detailed information to answer the research question and fill the gaps in past studies (Bednarek & Caple, 2014).

Generally, this research will take the form of ‘desk research’ or secondary research that is among the most common ways of using discourse analysis. This is a significant way of examining various primary sources, primary written primary sources. After all, transcriptions of verbal materials belong to the written primary sources. According to Bailey (2014), such a study is carried out by summarizing, collating and synthesizing data collected from the written sources. This method will involve collecting data from the different sources, pertinent to the question or topic under study as well as interpreting the data.

Part of the process of getting conclusions from the research process entails a quantitative dimension such as, that the researcher counts the number of times a specific word of phrase is occurring in the primary material being analyzed. Then an analysis of the context within which the words or phrases are used, therefore getting a qualitative dimension. Therefore, discourse analysis suggests a compound methodology involving more than a single kind of the research process as well as

analysis (Cameron, 2009).

In this case, I will carry out an analysis of sources that are related to the issue of gender discrimination in the police force as well as the verbal discourses that occur in this context. There will be use of data from spoken and written sources of media reporting as well as some official stance communication.

The written sources that will be used as a source of information for this study will be press articles, reports related to the police force and other records obtained from within the police departments or their websites. In collecting data from these sources, it is important for me that I concentrate on particular text’s linguistic aspects such as metaphors, as well as other word categories, such as combinations of adjectives and nouns, and verbs.

From the language use, hopefully I will be able to come to conclusions regarding the role played by the police culture in the issue of gender discrimination within the police force in the USA & UK.

Content Analysis

Accordinhg to Krippendorff (2004), the content analysis refers to a general set of techniques useful for analysing and understanding collections of text. The object of (qualitative) content analysis can be all sort of recorded communication, such as transcripts of interviews, discourses, protocols of observations, video tapes, documents etc. Content analysis analyses not only the manifest content of the material—as its name may suggest. Becker and Lissmann (1973) have differentiated levels of content: themes and main ideas of the text as primary content; context information as latent content.

Generally content analysis embeds the text into a model of communication within which it defines the aims of analysis. This is expressed by Krippendorff, who defines “content analysis as the use of replicable and valid method for making specific inferences from text to other states or properties of its source” (Krippendorff 1969, p.103). There is considerable work done in this area, which predates the Internet related research by decades. Though there is quite a few data will be sourced from the internet for this paper. In the context of understanding the impact of digitised collections and websites, one particularly relevant type of content analysis is the analysis of news articles, which is the main analysis method that will be employed in

the methodology. So what are you going to count and in what?

Data Analysis

From the case study, I will examine the data from the various sources to establish any connections or relationships between the object under study and the outcomes obtained relative to the identified research question or objectives. I will use triangulation in collecting the data, which means that there will also be various methods of interpreting and analyzing the data. This is important as it will bring forth findings and conclusions that are much stronger than in a case where only a single source of data is used (Gibbert et al., 2009).

For the current study, I will begin by deliberately sorting the collected data to establish relationships as well as create and expose new insights. I will also look for any data that is conflicting to disconfirm the analysis. I will categorise, tabulate, and recombine the data according to the original purpose of the research, then cross check discrepancies and facts in accounts. The specific technique of analysis that will be used by me will be a placement of information into data into arrays. I will create categories’ matrices, create flow charts and other forms of display, and tabulate events’ frequency (Souto-Manning, 2014).

From the critical text analysis, the data collected will be transcribed for analysis. The method that will be used for analyzing the data is discourse analysis. This is an appropriate method in examining and analyzing the transcripts. Nevertheless, it is important to remember that there are various models used for discourse analysis. This suggests the need for careful consideration of the effectiveness of the model that will be used based on the nature of this research. The model that will be used for this research is the discourse analysis model proposed by Gee (2011).

In his model, Gee focuses on the form of critical discourse analysis, looking past the language used in the text for the purpose of coming up with greatly practical findings and conclusions in the phenomenon being studied. This way, it will be possible for me to get answers to the question of the role played by the police culture in the issue of gender discrimination within the police force in the USA & UK. Gee suggests that in speaking, human beings tend to produce various spheres of “reality” and the process through which this happens involuntary (Gee, 2011). The notion is that at the center of language, identity as well as social relationships transpires is important for this research. Therefore, the model is useful in finding out how individuals create their own reality within their cultures and social context (Gee, 2011).

This implies that this tool probably could find out how the females officer recognizes/realize their circumstances in this issue.

Gee states that “ways of combining and integrating language, actions, interactions, ways of thinking, believing, valuing and using various symbols, tools and objects to enact a particular sort of socially recognisable identity” (p.28). This suggests the possibility of a single person belonging to more than a single discourse. Therefore, using this model, it is possible for me to examine the manner in which the language changes on the basis of various discourses.

Using the model, it will be possible for the researcher to establish how the women in the police force perceive their reality. It will be possible to determine whether or not women perceive the presence of discrimination based on their gender within the force. This could be measured against the realities described by men in the same context or by leadership in the same context (Gee, 2011). On the basis of the model that Gee proposes, it seems that their perceptions of the reality of discrimination might change in relation to the varying discourses. However, I personally, strongly believe the gender discrimination against the females in the police force is existing and critical for the organization to approach it properly. Therefore, this model is very relevant for the research as it informs the study of figured worlds (of the research subjects to provide answers to the research question.

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Introduction