Posted: June 7th, 2015

Program Evaluation on a District-wide Professional Learning Community

Abstract

Academics and policy makers emphasize that one of the keys to improving educational outcomes in the United States lies in enhancing the quality of teachers. Professional learning community (PLC) is one of a multitude of professional development models used to improve teacher quality. This doctoral study is a program evaluation on the impact of a district-wide PLC on teacher’s instructional practice in an urban school district. A quantitative method will be conducted using the CIPP model as a platform to gauge whether or not this district initiative has made a change in teachers’ instructional practice. The CIPP model is a systematic approach to evaluate the context, input, process and product of a program being evaluated. The use of the Professional Learning Communities Assessment-Revised (PLCA-R) instrument support this study to identify the components of an effective PLC and how teachers benefited from participating in the PLCs. Wenger’s social learning theory, community of practice, will provide the framework for this study. Professional development is suggested to be an approach to improving effectiveness of teachers and the performance of students. Many teachers are engaging in professional development each year. Regardless of this, the actual impact of professional development in increasing student achievement and turning schools around has not been well established in research. Studies that have already been carried out in this area have produced varied results. This study will have implications for social change for this urban school district as this study examines the implementation of the district-wide PLC. This study will show how the provision of PLC can be used to establish an important link to improving teaching and learning.

 

 

 

 

Program Evaluation on a District-wide Professional Learning Community

by

 

 

Table of Contents

List of Tables. ii

List of Figures. iii

Section 1: Introduction to the Study (APA Level 0 Heading) 1

APA Level 1 Heading. Error! Bookmark not defined.

APA Level 2 Heading. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Section 2: Literature Review.. 1

First Heading. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Section 3: Research Method. Error! Bookmark not defined.

First Heading. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Section 4: Results. Error! Bookmark not defined.

First Heading. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Section 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations. Error! Bookmark not defined.

First Heading. Error! Bookmark not defined.

References. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Appendix A: Title of Appendix. Error! Bookmark not defined.

 

List of Tables

Table 1. A Sample Table Showing Correct Formatting. Error! Bookmark not defined.

 

 

List of Figures

Figure 1. 4 year cohort graduation rates 2009-2014

 

 

Section 1: Introduction to the Study

Introduction

The student population in most schools has become more diverse and the modern age continues to require them to be capable of developing higher order thinking skills in order to compete in today’s highly technological and global marketplace (Razzouk & Shute, 2012). This requirement demands that teachers and schools are more effective. Given this demand on teachers and schools, administrators and boards of education alike are looking for ways to help teachers and schools meet the increase demands. One model identified is professional learning communities (PLC).

PLCs have been described as a comprehensive, continuing, and thorough approach to improving the effectiveness of teachers (Tack & Vanderlinde, 2014). If a PLC is appropriately implemented, it can serve as a catalyst in the transformation of the learning environment by switching teachers’ professional practice from teaching to learning, isolation to collaboration, and intention to results (Lippy & Zamora, 2013). PLCs give educators a platform to improve student achievement by allowing teachers to work together to build each other’s instructional practice (Lippy & Zamora, 2013). Dufour, Eaker, and Dufour (2005) stated the PLC model will foster significant change in student achievement when teachers collaborate and use data analysis as a way to hold the group accountable for improvement.

Professional learning communities have been described as serving three interrelated roles: improving the performance of school; enhancing the quality of instruction in the classroom; and supporting the implementation of new initiatives (Segura & Tobia, 2014). Given the interrelatedness of these roles, there are questions about how best to use PLCs in meeting the new educational demands and identifying what are the best strategies in order to implement PLCs. These questions underscore the need to focus on how PLCs prepare teachers to deal with the challenges of the 21st century education and how they can help to improve the quality of teacher’s instruction and student outcomes (Kelcey & Phelps, 2013).

Definition of the Problem

On September 15, 2014, the superintendent of an urban school district located in the Northeast announced to the school community, including the board of education that an existing pilot PLC would be expanded district-wide (Harries, 2014). The purpose of the PLC is to promote job-embedded professional development across the district to support all teachers. This two year initiative is currently funded by a Teacher Incentive Fund (TIF) grant which provides funds to train and empower teacher leaders to identify their colleagues professional development needs in order to improve instruction. No information is available describing the impact of the pilot program on the teacher’s instructional practices.

A PLC is intended to be a comprehensive, continuing, and thorough approach toward improving the effectiveness of teachers, which in turn improves the performance of the students (Tack & Vanderlinde, 2014). This suggests the need to evaluate the implementation of professional learning communities as a model to improve the quality of teacher effectiveness. This pilot program has been in existence for two years. This urban school district, located in the Northeast, has yet to evaluate its effectiveness on teacher’s instructional practices and student achievement.

Rationale

According to Ewert, Sykes and Pettit (2014), education attainment is vital for a modern democracy and an educated workforce needs to be responsive to the rapidly growing job market. Knowledge of the educational inequities across the educational systems has called for interventions to address these gaps in educational outcomes (Hamilton, Heilg & Pazey, 2013). Moreover, researchers and politicians alike have embarked on identifying strategies to address the lack of student achievement. Some of the interventions and strategies include changes in teacher evaluation to include the achievement of students on standardized tests (Master, 2013), changes in promotion and tenure for teachers (Master, 2013), changes in state standards and the expectation from all students graduating from high schools (Porter, Fusarelli & Fusarelli, 2015). While these strategies are not exhaustive, they lend insight into the diverse strategies currently being employed to meet the demands faced by students graduating from our educational system (Porter, Fusarelli & Fusarelli, 2015).

Given the clear messages that teachers play an important role in the reform that is being shepherded, some focus has to be on strategies that have been identified as being potentially helpful in beginning to facilitate this change. Professional learning communities is one of a host of professional development strategies that are targeted at teachers. With the complex analytical skills that the student is expected to learn, teachers must be able to educate their students in ways that will help them develop critical thinking skills. Student’s success in the 21st century can only be conducted by teachers who understand what learning is as well as the appropriate pedagogy. Teachers should be able to respond to the needs of their students and have the ability to establish strong connections between the curriculum and student learning.

Evidence of the Problem at the Local Level

The school district under study serves approximately 20,474 students with the following racial breakdown: 46% African American, 37% Hispanic, and 14% White and 77% are eligible for free or reduced lunch (U.S. Department of Education, 2010) In 2011, according to the State Department of Education website, 71% of the schools under study did not make Adequate Yearly Progress on criteria referenced competency test. It is important to realize that the larger goal of a professional development system, beyond establishing the teachers’ effectiveness, is to develop teaching methods that will improve the learning of all students (Stephen, 2013). Professional learning has been found to have a very powerful effect on the skills and knowledge of a teacher. It has a large impact on student learning especially when sustained over time and when the professional development is directed and focused toward the important content and matter. When a very well designed professional development criterion is established, it offers teachers with opportunities that help them master the content and polish their teaching skills (Margolis & Doring, 2012). The criteria will ensure that the teachers evaluate both their own performance and that of their students as well. Effective criteria will also ensure that the teacher is able to identify and address the changes that are needed to be improvised to improve learning. This will eventually lead to improved students’ performance and increased in knowledge levels of the teacher (Stephen, 2013). The school district theory of action is to strengthen teacher-to-teacher interaction through informal and formal networks. These networks focus on quality practice thereby helping teachers to improve their learning practices in anticipation of increasing student achievement. This two year initiative is currently funded by the Teacher Incentive Fund (TIF) grant to train and empower teacher leaders to identify their colleagues professional development needs in order to improve instruction (Harries, 2014). Teacher’s views and perceptions have been used to evaluate the pilot program and its implementation. No information is available describing the impact of the pilot program on teacher’s instructional practices or student achievement.

The challenges, however, reflect the universal challenges of traditional professional development systems, including a lack of coherence and connection across professional learning opportunities, competition for teacher attention and time, and lack of differentiation to the particular needs of individual teachers. In addition, the fact of the district’s emphasis on small K-5 schools means that many teachers, in high school in particular, lacks daily interaction with other teachers in their discipline, a challenge that a district-wide professional learning community would be particularly helpful in addressing.

Research has shown that over the past 35 years, the American educational system continues to graduate 70-75 percent high school students (Dianda, 2008). The other 25 percent of the students who do not graduate from high school have a negative impact on society (Dianda, 2008). These dropouts traditionally have difficulty finding entry-level jobs therefore contributing fewer tax dollars. According to Dianda (2008), the impact of dropouts’ results in $58 billion in lost income revenue. They are more likely to obtain public assistance costing tax payers another $3.8 billion dollars. Furthermore, United States Department of Education statistics indicate that across the U.S. a significant achievement gap exists between White and Asian and other minority (Black and Latino) students in graduation rates and achievement testing (Ewert, Sykes and Pettit, 2014). The relevance of this observation rests in the fact that the educational system has to prepare all of its students to assume productive roles within their respective communities (Holme & Rangel, 2011). These observations portends the current trends that show that third-grade reading levels predict the criminal justice involvement of young minority individuals and these deficits left unchecked compounds (Fiester, 2010).

 

 

 

I
H
G
F
E
D
C
B
A
District

Figure 1. School district under study 4 year graduation rates.

 

The school district under study has been working on the district-wide PLC model for the last two years as a solution to improve both teacher effectiveness and student achievement. The data chart above indicates a four year cohort graduation rate. Schools “B”, school “E”, school “G” and school “I” has the highest population of minorities and has the lowest high school graduation rates. Traditional professional development structures lacks coherence and connection as they are fragmented and dominated by district-led workshops that are typically short in duration, disconnected from teacher’s experiences, and seldom focused on daily challenges of teaching core subjects (Kelcey & Phelps,2013). An increase in high school graduation rates impacts all of us. College graduates have more options, greater earning capacity and longer life spans than their peers who do not complete high school. Increased high school graduation rates mean graduates will have meaningful choices in their careers. District stakeholders are relying on professional learning communities to catapult the school system to the next level; ensuring children have every opportunity to succeed.

Professional development has been found to have a very powerful effect on the skills of a teacher as well as the knowledge of the teacher (Segura & Tobia, 2014). It has a very big impact on the learning of a student especially when sustained over time and when directed and focused toward the important content and matter (Segura & Tobia, 2014). When a very well designed professional development criteria established, it offers teachers opportunities that help them master the content and polish their teaching skills. Professional development at the school level supports changes needed for positive working conditions for teachers (Schleicher, 2011). These activities shape the learning environment and thus directly and indirectly affect student outcomes (Schleicher, 2011). According to Burke (2013), teachers learn by interacting and collaborating with their peers on pedagogy. She also states, if teachers are given space to share and to reflect on their practice it will result in more effective outcome to improved teacher quality.

Evidence of the Problem from the Professional Literature

The notion of improving schools using what has come to be known as professional learning communities is a current trend. This term is used by Hattie (2009) in describing all sorts of combinations of persons with shared passion for education, a school committee, a grade-level teaching group, a whole school district, a high school department, a national professional organization, or a state department of education among others. The model of professional learning community is argued by Holmes (2013) to have come to a critical juncture to support teachers in improving their instructional practice. Research has revealed that the larger goal of professional development system beyond establishing the teachers’ effectiveness is to come up with teaching methods that will improve student achievement (Stephen, 2013). Policy makers and school leaders emphasize that professional learning communities is important in improving effectiveness of teachers, and therefore, improve achievement of schools and students (Barrett, Butler and Toma, 2012). Whether or not the effectiveness of these programs has been realized is something that requires more research.

The move to develop and implement professional learning communities has been increasing, but it is important that educators have an understanding of the merits of the concept. Professional learning communities (PLCs) have been identified as a potential “solution” to the limitations identified by in professional development strategies for teachers. First, PLCs makes a system-wide change possible because teachers are collaborating and networking. Second, they provide teachers with an avenue for collegial conversations about pedagogical improvements. Third, they create opportunities for teachers to engage in an inquiry approach as a driver for change with the goal of improving student achievement (Harris & Jones, 2010; Levine, 2011). DuFour & Eaker (2008) have argued that this approach is more aligned with the needs and demands of the educational expectations.

Harris and Jones (2010) provide an overview on system-wide professional learning communities in Wales, United Kingdom. In this article, challenges and successes of such a move are discussed to provide a proper understanding on future implementations. Harris and Jones illustrate the importance of teachers networking on school improvement. An overview of professional learning communities and system reform is presented by the authors.

Huizenga and Szczesiul (2014) offer a critical model for the understanding of district set-up teacher groups and whether or not teachers understand the focus of their work. The authors revealed that this research was done on a small scale but educators can learn from the practice of the principals observed (Lieberman and Mace, 2010). In most schools districts in the United States, there has been implementation of these learning communities as the basis for professional development. There are many collegial groups with individuals who have come together out of a shared commitment to the outcome such as student learning. Huizenga and Szczesiul (2014) suggests that the groups within the school districts are engaging in various activities such as working and learning collaboratively, sharing a vision, visiting and observing different classrooms, and engaging in common decision making in education.

Levine (2011) provides research on how teacher learning communities improve teaching and learning. There are various benefits of learning communities in the teaching and learning process. Professional learning community provides benefits to the involved teachers and their students. Some of the benefits incline reduction in isolation of teachers, more committed and informed teachers, and improved performance for students and schools (Agi´c, 2012). According to Townsend (2013) as an organizational arrangement, these communities of professional development are a strong tool for professional development and a strong strategy towards improvement and change in schools. Basically, teachers can benefit with interacting with their peers to improve instructional strategies (Hanraets, Hulsebosch, and de Laat, 2011; Burke, 2013; Schleicher, 2011).

Definitions

Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): The No Child Left behind Act required that all schools receiving Title I funds must meet AYP on a state assessment in reading/language arts and math. AYP is a measure that the United States Department of Education determines the requirements that a public school should meet.

Context, Input, Process, and Product (CIPP): Is a systematic way of evaluating programs and curriculums.

Program Evaluation: Program evaluation is a systematic way to measure the worth of a program and determine if it needs refinement and whether or not it is effective.

Peer-to-Peer learning: It is the sharing of knowledge between two or more peers.

Professional learning communities: A platform where teachers can meet to learn new instructional practices and acquire new knowledge.

Criterion-reference tests: Measures that school used to determine how well students have learned.

Job-Embedded Professional Development: Learning opportunities for teachers during the school day. The purpose of job-embedded professional development is to allow the teachers to experience and practice inquiry, planning, decision making, and the use of data with their colleagues.

Teacher Incentive Grant: In hard-to-staff schools, school districts are allowed to compete for funds to support initiatives to improve student outcomes.

Significance

To improve student achievement, the school district under this study looked at professional learning communities to close the achievement gap between the minority students and their white counterparts. Policy makers emphasize that one key to improving educational outcomes in the United States lies in enhancing the quality of teachers (Barrett, Butler, and Toma, 2012). According to Hanraets, Hulsebosch, Laat (2011) the educational field is increasingly considering learning communities as a promising way to stimulate and facilitate the professional development of teachers. Also, Dufour (2005) and Hoaglund, Birkenfield, Box (2014) state that professional learning communities provide the structure that must exist within schools in order to become effective. Millions of tax dollars have been allocated towards improving teacher effectiveness and there are growing concerns about the lack of progress in student achievement in urban school districts (Kelcey, Phelps, 2013). To study the implementation of the PLC model will provide stakeholders with the information to understand the areas of strength and challenges in the PLC model.

 

 

Guiding/Research Questions

This study will be a program evaluation using a quantitative method to explore the features of the implementation of district-wide professional learning communities (PLC). This study will examine the effectiveness of the PLCs and how teachers benefited from participating in the PLCs using the Professional Learning Communities Assessment-Revised (PLCA-R). The program evaluation will identifies both the strengths of the program and the area of weakness of the program.

Research Questions

The questions that guided this study are:

RQ 1-What is the impact the professional learning community model on teacher evaluation?

RQ 2- What evidence is available to validate the effectiveness of the professional learning communities?

RQ 3- What are teacher’s views of the professional learning community?

RQ 4- What areas of concerns do teachers and administrators have on the implementation of the professional learning community?

 

 

Review of the Literature

Theoretical Framework

            Community Practice (CoPs) is the theoretical framework proposed for this study which is from the work of Etienne Wenger. Community practitioners attempt to acquire sociocultural practices of the community (Herbers, Antelo, Ettling & Buck, 2011). For the purpose of this study, I will refer these practitioners as educators. CoPs foster a positive communal relationship with all involved to share best practices and to create a conduit to new knowledge in order to improve teacher’s instructional practice (Wenger, McDermott & Snyder, 2002). The context of this learning theory is grounded on the social participation of its members to actively collaborate and construct their learning communities on a common goal (Bouchamma & Michaud, 2010). Accoding to Herbers, Antelo, Ettling and Buck (2011) CoP is used in organizations to support and transform schools in their professional practices. The structure of CoP has three components: (a) domain: members in this group shares same interests and concerns. The members also value their shared knowledge and learning from each other; (b) community: The members actively engaged in a mutual discussion and shared information. As community members they develop a positive relationship to foster a platform for the group to learn from each other; (c) practice: Through shared knowledge the members develop their instructional practice repertoire (Herbers, Antelo, Ettling and Buck 2011)

According to Hanraets, Hulsebosch, Laat (2011) the educational field is increasingly considering networked learning as a promising way to stimulate and facilitate the professional development of teachers. CoPs is a framework in which teachers or any other group, who has a common concern or problem, come together to solve the problem using best practices (Holmes & Woodhams, 2013). The intent of CoPs is to provide participants a structure for collaborative inquiry to experiment with teaching methods through a reflective sharing process (Herbers, Antelo, Ettling & Buck, 2011). In order to help support school reform, CoPs can be used to provide participants a platform to develop cross-cultural awareness and regular engaged reflective practices to improve teaching and learning. Transformative learning is the overall goal of CoP, by challenging traditional pedagogy through shared knowledge and approaches to initiatives in education.

With the understanding of this learning theory, it is possible to develop effective learning strategies in professional learning communities, given that teachers in CoP are active participants (Holmes & Woodhams, 2013). The theory is also applicable in developing from simply novice to highly sophisticated teaching and learning approaches. This will enable more knowledge integration, sharing of experience and information, result in learners who understand what is important to learn in order to achieve the objectives of professional development (Kearsley, 2010).

Introduction

            In the federal year 2001, President George W. Bush and the 108th Congress, developed an educational policy entitled “No Child Left Behind” Act of 2001 (NCLB). The “No Child Behind” Act requires annual testing of all students in reading and mathematics in grades 3 through 8, beginning in 2005-2006. During the next 12 years, every state, school district and individual school must achieve the goal of 100 percent of their students demonstrating proficiency in reading and mathematics. NCLB has not yielded the results that policy makers predicted. Failure to achieve these goals is most evidence in minority student’s performance. Minority students continue to achieve lower academic performance than their white peers on state criterion-reference test (Hartney & Flavin, 2013). Policy makers also placed their efforts on teacher evaluation as a key lever to improve student achievement. This spurred many debates on how effective this policy would be in improving teaching instruction and student learning (Master, 2014).

US Department of Education statistics indicate that a significant achievement gap exists between White and Asian and other minority (Black and Latino) students in graduation rates and achievement testing (Ewert, Sykes and Pettit, 2014). The relevance of this observation rests in the fact that the educational system has to prepare all of its students to assume productive roles within their respective communities (Holme & Rangel, 2011). The relevance of these observations rests in the outcomes associated. Current trends in education show that third-grade reading levels predict the criminal justice involvement of young minority individuals and these deficits left unchecked compound (Fiester, 2010). Being able to address the individual, structural/institutional, and interpersonal challenges that either support or undermine these outcomes have been mixed (Holme & Rangel, 2011). While current trends suggest that the achievement gap between White/Asian and other minority students (Black and Latino) has declined, significant differences persist (U.S. Department of Education, 2010).

Educationally, the challenge of providing all students with quality instruction is limited by the resources (personal, teacher, family, school, and community) available. In addition, understanding the barriers to successful instruction continue to point to a challenging interaction between person-and-environment (Levine, 2011). While lots of research has shown that students from higher income communities generally fair better than their lower-income counterparts, these results are problematic because in all settings where minority (Black and Latino) students exist, their performance is lower (Aud, Fox & Kewal-Ramani, 2010). Some have called this persistent underperformance of these students a manifestation of institutionalized practice that result in lowered expectations from these students (Carey, 2014). For example, Carey (2014) and Rajas-LeBouef and Slate (2011) have shown that teacher perception of students’ ability at the beginning of the school year significantly predicted their performance at the end of the school year (Spiegel, 2012; Warren, 2010). These results suggest a clear interplay between teacher expectation and student performance. Claude Steele and Aronson (1995) on seeing these results proceeded to test the impact of stereotype threat on the academic outcomes of students.

Stereotype threat is the confirmation of an ethnic group developing an anxiety of negatively being stereotyped. It has been documented that in the educational context there is a clear interaction between the demands of the setting and the outcomes produced (Claude Steele & Aronson, 1995). Others have taken this research even further to demonstrate that occupying multiple “stigmatized” statuses’ result in further lowered performance on outcomes of interest (Block, Koch, Liberman, Merriweather & Roberson, 2011). Using this line of thinking, it is appropriate for educators to be called on to examine their pre-held views and work to address the professional blinders that may be present to ensure that all students receive appropriate instruction and meet the educational demands expected. Here the focus is on the teacher’s contribution to the results documented.

With a focus on the knowledge of the educational inequities that may be driven by instructional gaps, there have been calls for interventions to address (Hamilton, Heilg & Pazey, 2013). Moreover, researchers and politicians alike have embarked on identifying teacher-focused strategies to address these differences in outcomes. Some of the interventions and strategies include changes in the evaluation of teacher performance to include the achievement of students on standardized tests (Master, 2013), changes in promotion and tenure for teachers (Master, 2013), changes in state standards and the expectation from all students graduating from high schools (Porter, Fusarelli & Fusarelli, 2015), and changes in the measurement of skills at the student level (Hartney, Flavin, 2014). While these strategies are not exhaustive, they lend insight into the diverse strategies currently being employed to meet the demands faced by students graduating from our educational system (Porter, Fusarelli & Fusarelli, 2015).

Professional Development

Achieving higher student academic achievement requires the creation of conditions where the teachers have the opportunity for continual learning (Opfer & Pedder, 2011). Professional development experience is likely to influence student achievement if it promotes coherence, focuses on student learning engages individuals in meaningful discourse and connected to previous teacher experiences (Opfer & Pedder, 2011). According to Heller, Daehler, Wong, Shinohara, and Miratrix, (2012), the most important professional development characteristics for enhancing skills and knowledge includes a focus on content, active learning and a greater coherence of professional development practices and activities with other learning activities. This implies that to enhance professional development, it is important to focus on collective participation, duration and core features such as coherence, active learning and content. (Opfer & Pedder, 2011) also found that intensive and sustainable professional development influenced student achievement. The study indicated that teachers who receive extensive professional development increase student achievement by a significant margin. However, low levels of professional development have no impact on student achievement.

Environmental change is also a powerful approach to learning (Patton, Parker & Tannehill, 2015). The working environment and conditions can enhance learning when it promotes constructive controversy where inquiry is the custom and new learning is nurtured as a complex social process that happens between groups and individuals (Patton, Parker & Tannehill, 2015). Constructing school activities around teams and collaboration, rather than individually, is a growing trend in education and has been shown to significantly enhance team and individual performance (Szczesiul & Huizenga, 2014).

When individuals are working in teams, their performance is relatively high as compared to when they are working solo. According to Lezotte and Snyder (2011), the performance of individuals was nearly double at the team level as compared to that of individual level. At the team level, both potency (the belief that the team will achieve its objective regardless of the task) and efficacy (the belief that the team has the capacity to accomplish the task assigned) not only increase team performance but also collaborative efforts (Lezotte & Snyder, 2011). Teachers are better positioned to work in teams and develop new mental models that enhance performance. It is clear that professional learning communities are likely to be successful when they are supported by adult learning theory and professional development.

Effective school leaders have recognized the importance of professional development as an important factor in motivation of the teachers and performance. Hsiu-Ling, Hsueh-Liang and Chin-Chung (2014) suggest that effective teachers form the basis of effective schools, and improvement of the knowledge and skills of the teachers is among the most critical investment that schools leaders can make in education. However, Holmes (2013) argues that the most effective method of achieving successful professional development has not been agreed upon as there are various options available to the leaders. Hsiu-Ling, Hsueh-Liang and Chin-Chung (2014) support this argument by suggesting that studies on professional development appear to be scattered all over the subject areas, with the emphasis ranging from structures to personal traits of teachers and classroom processes. Cobb, Donaldson, and Mayer (2010) provides an overview on a case study on the challenges a principal have on trying to implement professional learning communities in school. One of the challenges identified is the lack of understanding on the most effective strategy for professional development.

Given the clear messages that teachers play an important role in the reform that is being shepherded, some focus has to be on strategies that have been identified as being potentially helpful in beginning to facilitate this change. To address this call, some have turned to professional development strategies (Kelcey & Phelps, 2013). Achieving higher student academic achievement requires the creation of conditions where the teachers have the opportunity for continual learning (Sun, Penuel, Frank, Gallagher & Young, 2013). Professional development experience is likely to influence student achievement if it promotes coherence, focuses on student learning, engages individuals in meaningful discourse and connected to previous teacher experiences ( Kelcey & Phelps, 2013). According to According to Heller, Daehler, Wong, Shinohara, and Miratrix, (2012), the most important professional development characteristics for enhancing skills and knowledge includes a focus on content, active learning, and a greater coherence of professional development practices and activities with other learning activities. This implies that to enhance professional development, it is important to focus on collective participation, duration and core features such as coherence, active learning and content. Yoon et al. (Patton, Parker & Tannehill, 2015) also found that intensive and sustainable professional development influenced student achievement. The study indicated that teachers who receive extensive professional development increase student achievement by a significant margin. However, low levels of professional development have no impact on student achievement (Patton, Parker & Tannehill, 2015).

Research also indicates that professional development experience for teachers is more successful when it is designed according to the theory of adult learning (Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 2012). According to the adult learning theory, individuals learn best when learning experience requires them to interpret and make sense of situations based on personal mental models (Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 2012). Such mental models are then utilized in making sense of and comparing new situations with experience and creating new mental models (Opfer & Pedder, 2011). Based on this process, adults self-determine and self-regulate actions to meet their innate needs for relatedness, autonomy and competence.

Learning is a byproduct of doing and reasoning (Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 2012)and adults learn best through direct experience engagement where they apply new information rather that participating in training programs where they are taught about new information. Further, deep learning occurs when individuals engage in action oriented, direct experience (Opfer & Pedder, 2011). Engaging individuals in new learning experience helps to provide them with tacit and explicit knowledge to guide the performance of complex tasks (Herbers, Antelo, Ettling & Buck, 2011).

Environmental change is also a powerful approach to learning (DuFour, Eaker & Karhanek, 2010; Patton, Parker & Tannehill, 2015). According to Patton, Parker & Tannehill, (2015), the working environment and conditions can enhance learning when it promotes constructive controversy where inquiry is the custom and new learning is nurtured as a complex social process that happens between groups and individuals. Constructing school activities around teams and collaboration, rather than individually, is a growing trend in education and has been shown to significantly enhance team and individual performance (Woodland & Mazor, 2015). When individuals are working in teams, their performance is relatively high as compared to when they are working solo. According to Lezotte & Snyder (2011), the performance of individuals was nearly double at the team level as compared to that of individual level. At the team level, both potency (the belief that the team will achieve its objective regardless of the task) and efficacy (the belief that the team has the capacity to accomplish the task assigned) not only increase team performance but also collaborative efforts (Lippy & Zamora, 2013). Teachers are better positioned to work in teams and develop new mental models that enhance performance. It is clear that teacher networks are likely to be successful when they are supported by adult learning theory and professional development. These activities have been shown to have some positive effects. There are several models of professional development currently being implemented in school settings (Hanover Research, 2012). These models have been shown to impact academic outcomes and meet some of the changing demands in school settings (Watson, 2014). There are generally three broad models of professional development: standardized teacher professional development, site-based teacher professional development and self-directed teacher professional development.

Standardized Teacher Professional Development

Model standardized teacher professional development (TPD) is a centralized top-down approach where information and learning strategies are presented to a whole group. This is a one size fits all approach to teacher’s professional development. In this model, professional development is achieved by dissemination of information through workshop or teacher in-service. Research into the effectiveness of this model has been mixed. Kord (2015) and colleagues in a comprehensive review on this type of professional development have been successful at meeting the academic demands of educational settings when the following conditions are present: if there is support from administration at the school level, the trainer has expertise in the subject matter and if there is motivation from the teacher to participate in the learning.

While promising, there have been calls for a more integrated and demand-specific approach to teacher professional development. The presenter when coming up with professional development skills should know that adult learners have a tendency of resisting learning when they feel that knowledge is been forced into them (Kang, 2011). The presenter should set up a graded learning program that will be moving from a more complicated to a less complicated structure. The presenter should also ensure that they develop a rapport that will optimize approachability and that will encourage asking of questions and one that will encourage the exploration of learning concepts (Educators, 2011). The presenter should show interest in what the teachers have got to offer. They should carefully and actively pay keen interest in the questions that teachers ask. The presenter should provide a regular constructive and specific feedback, both the negative and the positive to the teachers (Educators, 2011).

This will help the teacher assess the progress they have made within the learning process. A good presenter will be one who leads the teacher toward inquiry before he/she supplies the learner with so much information and facts (Kang, 2011). A good presenter will be the one who will acknowledge that every adult has a preferred learning style that the teacher prefers. The presenter should review goals and at the end acknowledge the completion of a goal by the teachers (Educators, 2011). Educational scholars have stated that Standardized TPD, which have received some attention it has only minimal success in meeting the needs and demands of changing teacher’s classroom practice (Kord, 2015). According to the Center for Public Education (2013), one shot workshops fails to improve teacher’s effectiveness, only a ten percent of teachers can transfer what they learn in traditional workshops into their instructional practice (Kord, 2015 &Center for Public Education, 2013).

 

Site-Based Teacher Professional Development

Model site-based teacher professional development (TPD) is takes place at the school level. In this model, professional development is achieved by a cohort of teachers who engage into an extended time in a process of building capacity in pedagogy within the cohort. Research into the effectiveness of this model has been positive (Kord 2015). According to Kord (2015), Center for Public Education (2013) and Hooker (2008) in a comprehensive review on this type of professional development has been successful at meeting the academic demands of educational settings when the following conditions are present: site-based TPD is successful when delivered in connection to the school’s vision, a well implementation of teacher learning communities and a well-trained teacher to facilitate teachers in the change process. While promising, there have been calls for a more integrated and demand-specific approach to teacher professional development. These calls rest on the observation that teacher networks are linked to change and innovation (Hanraets, Hulsebosch & de Laat, 2011). To address some of these issues, educational scholars and school leadership have called on teacher networking, which have also received some attention and success, in meeting the needs and demands of the changing educational context (Hanraets, Hulsebosch & de Laat, 2011). The teacher facilitators can express respect to the teachers by taking interest in what they do. They can also do so by acknowledging the pool and the wealth of experience that the teachers may be having. They should also consider the teachers as colleagues who are equal and with time they will match up the experience and the skills. The teacher facilitator should experience the expression of ideas as well as the reasoning of the teachers.

This way the leader will facilitate a greater integration of knowledge, information and experience (Educators, 2011). The teachers will learn the skill of distinguishing what is important in the field of teaching. They will also learn of how they can distinguish important things. They will also learn how to prioritize the students’ needs. It’s therefore evident that with the proper methodology, the facilitator can drill the proper learning techniques to the teachers that can be used toward the realization of quality practice that will help the teachers improve their classroom practice which will increase student achievement (Lippy & Zamora, 2012). Teacher networks have been described as an exemplar of site-based TPD. For teacher networks, the strategy is using teachers and lead teachers to evaluate and determine the best course of action.

Self-Directed Teacher Professional Development

Model self-directed TPD comprises in teachers independently pursuing their own professional development. In this model, professional development is achieved by teachers connecting with experience colleagues for support and probing the internet for appropriate lesson plans. Research into the effectiveness of this model is still in its infancy but researchers’ stress that teachers should not use this approach as their primary vehicle to improve their instructional practice. For example, Kord (2015) and colleagues were able to show that self-directed TPD while in its infancy point to some key issues that impact on the fidelity and effectiveness of this approach in meeting the specific demands described earlier. Moreover, Kord (2015) and colleagues have called for closer examination of the following conditions on the outcomes of interest: the emergence of teacher’s online communities, workshops and the internet. This model according to Kord (2015) and Hooker (2008) can support teachers to be lifelong learners.

Overall, there have been critiques of traditional professional development structures for teachers (Patton, Parker & Tannehill, 2015). This critique argues that traditional professional development structures lack coherence and connection. They have also been described as fragmented and dominated by district led workshops that are typically short in duration, disconnected from teacher’s experiences, and seldom focused on daily challenges of teaching core subjects (Kelcey & Phelps, 2013). One proposed model to address these issues is professional learning communities’ (PLCs). Professional learning communities (PLCs) have been identified as a potential “solution” to the limitations identified by the field in professional development strategies for teachers. First, PLCs makes a system-wide change possible because teachers are collaborating and networking. Second, they provide teachers with an avenue for collegial conversations about pedagogical improvements. Third, they create opportunities for teachers to engage in an inquiry approach as a driver for change with the goal of improving student achievement (Harris & Jones, 2010; Levine, 2011). DuFour & Eaker (1998) have argued that this approach is more aligned with the needs and demands of the “new” educational expectations (Margolis & Doring, 2012). This study will evaluate the effectiveness of this strategy in order to answer some of the questions posed regarding its potential in meeting the professional development demands for teachers in the 21st century.

Professional learning communities (PLCs) is one of a host of professional development strategies that are targeted at teachers. All professional development strategies have the goal of increasing the skills and ability of teachers to meet the demands of instruction and increase their capacity in instances where they may be lacking. Clearly highlighted here are the differing forms of professional development activities that impact on teacher training and instruction. While professional development has been found to have a very powerful effect on the skills of a teacher and teacher knowledge, there are questions about the long-term impacts (Lippy & Zamora, 2013). Some suggest that for professional development series to have lasting impact they need to be sustained over time and directed and focused toward the important content and matter (Lippy & Zamora, 2013). When well designed, a professional development series have specific criteria established and it offers teachers the opportunity to master the content and polish their teaching skills. Professional development at the school level, such as cooperating in teams, professional learning communities, and teachers interacting in school development all support the changes to teacher working conditions (Schleicher, 2011). These activities have been described as potentially shaping the learning environment and directly and indirectly affecting student outcomes (Schleicher, 2011). According to Burke (2013) teachers learns by interacting and collaborating with their peers on pedagogy. She also states, if teachers are given space to share and to reflect on their practice it will result in more effective outcome to improve teacher quality. These observations are important given the contextual and environmental changes in the outcomes associated with education for teachers and students.

It has been argued that for professional development series to be effective, they need to be job-embedded, targeted with a narrow focus on a specific pedagogy and teachers need to have the learning in a realistic educational setting (Margolis & Doring, 2012). One professional development strategy that has been proposed and attempts to address the needs of teachers, while considering and accounting for the limitations described earlier is professional learning communities (PLC).

Professional Learning Communities

The notion of improving schools using what has come to be known as professional learning communities is the current trend. This term is used by Hattie (2009) in describing all sorts of combinations of persons with shared passion for education, a school committee, a grade-level teaching group, a whole school district, a high school department, a national professional organization, or a state department of education among others. The model of professional learning community is argued by Holmes (2013) to have come to a critical juncture, one famous among those witnessing the providence of well-meant school reform efforts. The move to develop and implement professional learning communities has been on the increase, but it would be important that the educators have an understanding of the merits of the concept. Harris and Jones (2010) provide an overview on system-wide professional learning communities in Wales, United Kingdom. In this article, challenges and successes of such a move are discussed to provide a proper understanding on future implementations. Harris and Jones illustrate the importance of teachers networking on school improvement. An overview of professional learning communities and system reform is presented by the authors.

Various studies have supported the idea of implementing professional learning communities by schools in order to improve teacher professional knowledge and student learning (Heller, Daehler, Wong, Shinohara and Miratrix, 2012). Conventionally, the concept of professional learning communities emerged from the desire to re-culture schools as learning organizations to improve the work of teachers, and as a consequence, improve student outcomes (Szczesiul & Huizenga, 2014). While there is no single definition of professional learning communities, there are some common features that have been identified from research. First, all professional learning communities have a shared vision and values between administrators and teachers with the focus on student learning and decision making about collaborative learning efforts and instructional practice. Second, professional learning communities have a collaborative culture that enables sharing of responsibilities for student learning and working together to achieve a common purpose. Third, professional learning communities have a focus on evaluation to improve student learning through a commitment to result oriented thinking and continuous improvement. Fourth, professional learning communities exhibit shared and supportive leadership between administrators and leaders. Finally, professional learning communities have shared personal practices that result from teachers learning and working together through collective inquiry (Pirtle & Tobia, 2014).

Although improving student performance through changes in teacher practice is the core of professional learning communities, there is limited research to support the theory. For instance, various studies have explored the impact of teams in the school system. According to Lomos, Hofman and Bosker (2011), team-based approaches have a significant effect on the culture of the school. However, the use of teams does not have any significant impact on student achievement (Levine, 2011). Basically, professional development of teams focuses on team processes and activities rather than instructional content. Failure to focus on instruction can have a positive impact on the feelings of teachers and the overall culture but not on student achievement (Levine, 2011). This outcome suggests that, although all organizational reforms may result in improved culture, they may not influence student learning and the delivery of instruction. These findings are consistent with the findings of Margolis and Doring (2014) which indicated that teacher reforms were relatively elusive as most of the changes did not target classroom activities. The findings indicated that participation in professional learning communities resulted in a change of culture and this can significantly affect student outcomes. Further, Lomos, Hofman and Bosker (2011) also noted an increase in student achievement when teachers engaged in professional learning communities.

Huizenga and Szczesiul (2014) offer a critical model for the understanding of district set-up teacher groups and whether or not teachers understand the focus of their work. The authors revealed that this research was done on a small scale but educators can learn from the practice of the principals observed. In most schools districts in the United States, there has been implementation of these learning communities as the basis for professional development. There are many collegial groups with individuals who have come together out of a shared commitment to the outcome such as student learning. Huizenga and Szczesiul (2014) suggests that the groups within the school districts are engaging in various activities such as working and learning collaboratively, sharing a vision, visiting and observing different classrooms, and engaging in common decision making in education.

Levine (2011) provides research on how teacher learning communities improve teaching and learning. There are various benefits of learning communities in the teaching and learning process. Professional learning community provides benefits to the involved teachers and their students. Some of the benefits Williams, Cate and O’Hair (2009) suggest incline reduction in isolation of teachers, more committed and informed teachers, and improved performance for students and schools. According to Townsend (2013) as an organizational arrangement, these communities of professional development are a strong tool for professional development and a strong strategy towards improvement and change in schools. Basically, teachers can benefit with interacting with their peers to improve instructional strategies (Hanraets, Hulsebosch, and de Laat, 2011).

Professional learning communities (PLC) have been described as a comprehensive, continuing thorough approach to improving the effectiveness of teachers and schools leaders and the performance of students and schools (Tack & Vanderlinde, 2014). PLCs are a type of professional development strategies for teachers that focuses on increasing teacher skills using peers as school leaders who assist in the assessment and implementation of skills-based learning that in tailored to meet the specific strengths and deficits identified through the teacher-peer, student leader consultation.

If PLC is appropriately implemented it may serve as a catalyst in the transformation of the learning environment by switching teacher’s professional practice from teaching to learning, isolation to collaboration, and intention to results (Lippy & Zamora, 2013). PLCs gives educators a platform to improve student achievement by allowing teachers to work together to build each other’s capacity (Lippy & Zamora, 2013). Gerstein, Dimino, Jayanthi, Kim and Santoro (2010) argue that the PLC model has the potential to foster significant change in student achievement when teachers collaborate and use data analysis as a way to hold the group accountable for improvement. Given the structure of this school-wide intervention there have been a number of discussions about the role that PLC play in the development of effective teaching and student learning (Lippy & Zamora, 2013).

Professional learning communities have been described as serving three interrelated roles: improving the performance of school; enhancing the quality of instruction in the classroom; and supporting the implementation of new initiatives’ (Herbers, Antelo, Ettling and Buck 2011). Given the interrelatedness of these roles, there are questions about how best to use PLCs in meeting the new educational demands and identifying what are the best strategies in implementing PLCs. These questions underscore the need to focus on how PLCs prepare teachers to deal with the challenges of the 21st century education and how they can help to improve the quality of teacher’s instruction and student outcomes (Kelcey & Phelps, 2013). Given the questions around effectiveness and outcomes this research will observe how PLCs in a school district under study, which has been implemented district-wide, answers the questions posed. To achieve this goal, a program evaluation strategy will be employed. This study will evaluate the effectiveness of this strategy in order to answer some of the questions posed regarding its potential in meeting the professional development demands for teachers in the 21st century.

Realizing a Shared Vision Through Professional Learning Communities

The vision of professional learning communities focuses on student learning and achievement. The first step in implementing the school vision is through collaborative teams. Collaboration is essential and is required among administrators, parents, teachers, workers and the community. Once collaborative teams have been developed, inquiry into current realty and best practice starts. This commences by building shared knowledge where the team outlines essential outcomes based on available resources, assessment frameworks, district benchmark assessments and federal standards. Team members should be interdependent and they should work towards a shared goal and should be mutually accountable for the results ().

Basically, the goals of the teams should be measurable, specific and strategic, attainable, time bound and result oriented. By identifying the goals, the team is able to focus on a measurable target within a specified time frame. When the goal is measurable and bounded by time, the implementation team can then focus on the best approach to achieving the goal more so in resource and time constrained environments. By setting the timeframe of achieving the outcomes, the team must be action oriented to meet the target. During the implementation period, teachers should avoid being judgmental and close minded, rather they should share suggestions and ideas and remain flexible and open minded to new ideas. By adopting new ideas does not imply that the initial ones are ineffective, but they may be efficient. However, most teachers do not like it when their methods and knowledge are abandoned in favor of new ideas. In such a situation, professional learning communities are required.

Setting of team goals is an indication of commitment for continuous improvement. To measure the outcomes of the task assigned, it is recommended to use a common approach of assessment. The use of common assessments is preferred in professional learning communities due to their efficiency (shared tasks saves time), fairness (promotes similar pacing, consistent standards and common goals), effective monitoring (evidence of progress), informs individual teacher practice, collective response and team capacity (Darling-Hammond, 2012).

Challenges in Professional Learning Communities

One of the greatest challenges in professional learning communities is school leadership. Some communities assume a top-down approach where the school principal or superintendent is the leader. Although the formation of a professional learning community is implemented by the school principal or any other administrator, individual teachers and the support staff play the greatest role in ensuring it works (Szczesiul & Huizenga, 2014). Further, proper leadership can help facilitate the process, build shared knowledge about the professional learning community and its purpose and help in the realization of the desired results by promoting team engagement.

Team collaboration does not only require time, but also specific goals, activities and a clean purpose. The steps that school leaders can follow to encourage team engagement include clarifying essential outcomes (determination of individual student outcomes), the development of common assessment criterion, defining of proficiency (identify standards that determine proficient students) and analyzing results and establishing improvement strategies (Schleicher, 2011). It is important to note that the role of the school leader does not end when implementation is over.

 

 

Summary

In summary, professional learning communities can be utilized to enhance teacher commitment and professional development, as well as, improving student achievement in the local school district under study. However, there are various factors that should be taken into consideration to ensure the effectiveness of professional learning communities in improving student achievement and teacher professional development. The quality of interaction should be high for the system to realize high student achievement. To improve instruction, school systems should build practical skills through training, develop instructional leadership, create an environment where teachers learn from one another and recruit coaches to support teachers.

School leaders are also tasked with the establishment and implementation of professional learning communities, thus they influence professional learning of teachers. Professional learning is essential for enhancing skills and knowledge including a focus on content, active learning, opportunities for hands-on and greater coherence of professional development practices and activities with other learning activities. Professional learning should take the approach of adult learning theory to ensure its effectiveness. Through professional learning, teachers can learn through self-reflection and sharing experiences with other staff members. Effective professional learning can help improve student achievement (Levine, 2011).

Expert paper writers are just a few clicks away

Place an order in 3 easy steps. Takes less than 5 mins.

Calculate the price of your order

You will get a personal manager and a discount.
We'll send you the first draft for approval by at
Total price:
$0.00
Live Chat+1-631-333-0101EmailWhatsApp